From the 8th century BC, Crete entered a new period of political, social and economic development. Earlier settlements evolved into organized city-states, public buildings and sanctuaries were established, new institutions appeared and contacts with the wider Greek and Mediterranean world intensified. This period includes Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman Crete and conventionally ends in AD 395, when the Roman Empire was permanently divided into eastern and western parts.

The formation of the Cretan city-states

During the Archaic period, dozens of independent city-states developed across Crete, each with its own territory, political organization, army, sanctuaries and often its own coinage. The mountain settlements of the Early Iron Age were either abandoned or gradually incorporated into larger political and economic units.

Dreros is a characteristic example of an early city with organized political institutions and is particularly known for its Archaic inscriptions. Praesos, in eastern Crete, was associated with the Eteocretans, whom ancient sources regarded as descendants of the island’s earlier inhabitants.

Rivalries and alliances

The Cretan cities developed significant commercial and military activity, but frequently fought over fertile land, harbours and mountain passages. Among the strongest powers were Knossos, Gortyn and Lyttos. Their alliances changed repeatedly, and conflict could even lead to the complete destruction of a rival city.

During the Hellenistic period, broader forms of political cooperation were attempted, the most important being the Cretan League. At the same time, the cities maintained relations with the Hellenistic kingdoms, while Cretan archers served as mercenaries in armies throughout the Mediterranean.

Cities across the island

In western Crete, Polyrhenia controlled the region of Kissamos from a strongly fortified position, while coastal Phalasarna possessed an impressive enclosed harbour. Aptera dominates Souda Bay and preserves monuments from several different historical periods.

In central Crete, Eleftherna stands out for its long history, revealed through residential, religious and funerary remains. In eastern Crete, Lato is one of the best-preserved examples of an ancient mountain city, while coastal Itanos developed extensive commercial activity and strong connections with the eastern Mediterranean.

The Roman conquest

Increasing Roman involvement in the eastern Mediterranean eventually led to the war of 69–67 BC. After fierce fighting, the Roman commander Quintus Caecilius Metellus completed the conquest of the island and received the honorary title “Creticus”.

Gortyn developed into the principal administrative centre and later became the capital of the Roman province of Crete and Cyrenaica. The city flourished, acquiring theatres, baths, temples, aqueducts and other public buildings. The archaeological site also preserves the famous Gortyn Code, an extensive 5th-century BC inscription containing regulations on family and civil law.

The cities and harbours of Roman Crete

During the Roman period, many older cities remained inhabited and continued to develop. Lappa, Olous and Hersonissos acquired public buildings, cisterns, baths, houses and harbour installations.

Lebena, near modern Lendas, became famous for its sanctuary of Asclepius and served as an important healing and harbour centre. The construction of roads, aqueducts, villas and agricultural installations strengthened the economic integration of Crete into the Roman world.

The spread of Christianity

Christianity began to spread through Crete during the first centuries AD. Tradition associates the Apostle Paul and his disciple Titus with the establishment of the island’s first organized Church. During Late Antiquity, bishoprics were founded and Early Christian basilicas were constructed in many cities.

Following the division of the Roman Empire in AD 395, Crete became part of the eastern half and gradually entered the Byzantine period. Many ancient cities continued to be inhabited, while new Christian churches transformed the island’s religious and urban landscape.