Between 824 and 827, Andalusian Muslim exiles who had previously seized Alexandria and settled in Egypt for a period gradually conquered Crete. They were led by Abu Hafs Umar, known in Byzantine sources as Apohapsis. On the island they established a largely independent Muslim state, the Emirate of Crete, which survived until the Byzantine reconquest of 961.

The foundation of Chandax

The new rulers founded and fortified the city of Chandax on the northern coast, at the site of present-day Heraklion. Its name derived from the Arabic word al-khandaq, meaning ditch or trench, after the large defensive moat that surrounded the city. Chandax developed into the capital of the emirate, an important commercial harbour and a powerful naval base in the eastern Mediterranean.

The foundation of Chandax shifted Crete’s administrative and economic centre to the northern coast. Its position provided direct access to the maritime routes of the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. The city remained the capital of Crete during the following centuries, first as Byzantine Chandax and later as Venetian Candia.

Life in the Emirate of Crete

Information about the emirate’s internal organisation and everyday life remains limited because most surviving written accounts are Byzantine and describe Crete primarily as a hostile naval base. Nevertheless, coins and the limited Arabic references indicate the existence of an organised administration, economic activity and commercial contacts with Egypt, North Africa and the wider Islamic world.

Agriculture and livestock farming continued to form the basis of the island’s economy, while trade through Chandax became increasingly important. The emirate issued its own coinage, demonstrating a considerable degree of political and economic autonomy. Part of Crete’s Christian population also continued to live on the island, although the ecclesiastical organisation and living conditions of these communities are not sufficiently documented.

Raids across the Aegean

Frequent raids were launched from Crete against Byzantine islands, ships and coastal regions. Chandax became a base for Muslim fleets and private raiding vessels, giving Crete considerable strategic importance. Maritime trade, captured goods and the trafficking of prisoners, many of whom were sold into slavery, were connected with the economy of this period.

The loss of Crete created a major strategic problem for the Byzantine Empire, threatening maritime communications and coastal settlements throughout the Aegean. The Byzantines organised several campaigns to recover the island, but most ended in failure. One of the largest unsuccessful expeditions took place in 949.

The reconquest by Nikephoros Phokas

In 960, a major new campaign was launched under the command of General Nikephoros Phokas, who later became Byzantine emperor. Large Byzantine forces landed on Crete and besieged the heavily fortified city of Chandax for several months. The city was captured in March 961, bringing the Emirate of Crete to an end and restoring the island to the Byzantine Empire.

After the reconquest, the Byzantines reorganised the administration and defensive system of Crete. According to local tradition, Nikephoros Phokas considered transferring the capital from the vulnerable coastal city of Chandax to the hill of Rocca, where the Temenos Fort was founded. Chandax ultimately remained the capital, mainly because of the strategic importance of its harbour.